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One advantage of the numerous distance-measuring schemes in use, which overlap over a range of Official shenandoah Shine Merch SunShine T Shirt from nearby to very distant, is that astronomers can calibrate and corroborate their measurements with multiple approaches. Such calibrations and corroborations thus lend an additional measure of reliability to these schemes. Indeed, by comparing results using different methods, weaknesses have been identified in certain schemes. In most cases, additional studies have demonstrated ways to guard against and correct for known difficulties. As a single example of these multiple approaches, prior to 2011 the distance to the Pinwheel Galaxy was determined, based on measurements of Cepheid variable stars in the galaxy, to be 20.9 million light-years, with an uncertainty of 1.8 million light-years. As of September 2011, measurements of the light output of the 2011 Type Ia supernova in the Pinwheel Galaxy are completely consistent with this distance figure…. In short, distances to astronomical objects can be and have been measured with substantial accuracy and reliability. For the most part, the calculations involved employ only basic mathematics taught in high school. Thus the overall conclusion of a universe consisting of billions of galaxies, most of them many millions of light-years away, is beyond reasonable doubt at the present time..

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This is completely correct. The Big Bang model suggests that all structures in the Official shenandoah Shine Merch SunShine T Shirt, from super clusters down to dwarf galaxies are built bottom up, by the contestant merging of smaller clumps of stars, gas and dark matter. The statistics and nature of this merging process is at the heart of modern cosmology and can be used to discriminate against different types of dark matter and different idea about how galaxies form. The currently favored idea is that the smallest clump that can be made by direct collapse after the Big Bang is about the size of an earth – galaxies are built as clumps of this size merge to make bigger and bigger clumps. Some of these mergers are quite violent and stars can be flung to great distances like when an astroid strikes a planet- blobs of debris can be shot into outer space. Rogue stars are the galactic debris that’s wandering though space trying to get back to the galaxy that expelled it, but can’t (necessarily). The nature if the rogue star population depends on the merger history of the Milky Way. We don’t know this exactly but we can make some inferences. The Milky Way galaxy shows no real signature of a merger (like a bulge of stars). In fact it’s relatively thin disc can rule out a recent big merger. Thus the rogue stars that populate our “halo” would have to be old, dim red stars having formed along time ago. This is consistent with a lack of any strong UV emission (which comes from young hot stars) in the halo (although the brightness (or density) of these rogue stars is just barely detectable.)

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